Empire of Japan, at the height of its territorial expansion, June 4, 1942
The First Six Months
"I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant and fill him with a terrible resolve"- Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto
The first six months of the United States' entry into World War II in the Pacific Theater were among the darkest periods for both the country and its armed forces. During those six months, loss after loss, which included territorial losses, large amounts of both civilian and soldier casualties, and a terrible loss of morale, was par for the course. Beginning with the surprise attack at Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941, by the Japanese Navy, and for those succeeding months, the Japanese dominated the Pacific War, which resulted in an empire for the Japanese. Finally, after these first six months of the Pacific War were over, the United States finally began to turn the tide, which was highlighted by the Battle of Midway. Here, I will showcase the most important events leading up to that great battle, which would become known as the turning point of the war in the Pacific.
Pearl Harbor
Painting of the Japanese Kido Butai
Battleship Row, Pearl Harbor, December 7th 1941
New York Times front page, December 8th, 1941
For many years, Japan had designs on taking over territory on the Far Eastern mainland. Long an island country that relied on the resources of other countries, Japan made the decision to build up its armed forces and invade Manchuria in 1931, followed by mainland China in 1937. Initially, the United States was not involved in these conflicts as it maintained its post-World War One neutrality principles. Still, as time passed and Japan’s aggression continued to expand, stability in the entire region was placed at risk as well as the economic interests of the United States, which had been an important factor for it since the 1800s. To try and slow down, if not stop, the Japanese advances and aggression, the United States began to place economic sanctions on Japan, which included an oil embargo, which is crucial to a country’s armed forces and a city’s industrial capabilities.
Due to the sanctions and embargo that threatened to halt its imperialistic plans and harm its economy, Japan faced a very difficult decision. On the one hand, if Japan were to proceed to invade countries such as China, the Philippines, and the Dutch East Indies, the resources it needs to sustain its army and economy would be in place, and Japan would no longer have to rely on other countries. However, on the other hand, invasion meant conflict with the United States, which was an ally and had a presence in the Far East through trade, bases of operations, and other means. As a result, Japan made the ambitious decision to surprise attack the United States fleet, which would enable it to complete its imperial goals of expansion and annexation of territory to satisfy its needs.
The attack, planned by the legendary Japanese Admiral Yamamoto, was planned and executed against the United States air and naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7th, 1941. The plan was for Japanese planes to be launched a couple of hundred miles from Hawaii and to attack, undetected. The Japanese were able to achieve surprise by launching the attack on a quiet Sunday morning when it was known that the Americans were not going to be prepared for such an attack while simultaneously having their statesmen negotiate with the United States in Washington D.C. under the guise of trying to come to a peace agreement while its ships were sailing west to attack. The result of the Japanese attack was catastrophic. Multiple Japanese air waves destroyed hundreds of American planes unexpectedly, still on the ground at Hickam, Wheeler, and various other American airfields. Further, the Japanese managed to strike the vaunted Battleship Row, which moored all of the American Battleships in the Pacific, and sink or severely damage all of the ships. This included a violent explosion from a bomb on the USS Arizona, which instantaneously killed over 1100 men because the bomb hit the ammunition magazine of the ship and caused the USS Oklahoma to capsize, trapping and drowning dozens. By the time the surprise attack of the two waves was complete, close to 2500 American military personnel were killed.
Although the devastation caused by the Japanese navy against the US base was extensive, the objective of knocking out the American fleet and military strength was ineffective. This was because the American aircraft carriers were not present at Pearl Harbor during the attack, and the base’s oil refineries and repair yards were not damaged, which meant the Americans would be able to recover from the attack quickly. The next day, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt called the surprise attack by Japan “a date which will live in infamy,” and this was followed by Congress overwhelmingly voting to declare war on Japan. The other Axis countries, Germany and Italy, declared war on the United States in the days that followed, fulfilling their Pact of Steel commitment to Japan.
Japanese Expansion
As expected, the Japanese used the post-Pearl Harbor military situation to expand across the Pacific and Southeast Asia. The Allies were weakened, and the Japanese took advantage by invading and seizing Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, and the Philippines, as well as Singapore and the Dutch East Indies. All of this takeover occurred in a couple of months. The Allies had been backed into a corner, and the situation was bleak. To understand how bleak, we look at the Philippines campaign.
The Philippines Campaign
Image of the Bataan Death March
The Japanese began the campaign against the Philippines the day after Pearl Harbor, and within weeks, the United States Air Force was almost completely destroyed along with their airfields. The Japanese invasion of Luzon, with a march on Manila from both the north and south, was advancing efficiently. The Americans and Filipinos, led by American General Douglas MacArthur, set up a defensive position along the Bataan peninsula and, despite being undersupplied and outgunned, managed to keep the Japanese from taking over the Philippines for months.
Eventually, the Allies were forced to withdraw to the island of Corregidor for last stand. The American and Filipino force was cut off and on the brink of collapse due to its shortages when Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to escape so that he would continue to lead the American forces in the Pacific. MacArthur followed the order given, proclaiming famously, “I shall return,” although he did so begrudgingly.
Soon thereafter, Corregidor fell and with it, 76,000 Allied troops into Japanese hands along with the Philippines, on May 6th. Subsequently, the Allied POWs were forced to march over 60 miles in horrific conditions, which caused the death of thousands. It takes two years for MacArthur to fulfill his vow to return.
Malaya Campaign and Fall of Singapore
British Troops surrendering after Singapore falls
The Japanese launched their campaign against British-held Malaya on December 8, 1941, just hours after attacking Pearl Harbor. Using speed, surprise, and superior air power, Japanese forces landed in northern Malaya and quickly moved south through the dense jungle, overwhelming British, Indian, and Australian troops. Despite being outnumbered on paper, the Japanese made rapid progress by using bicycles and capturing Allied supply lines.
As the British fell back toward Singapore, their position grew increasingly desperate. The British had believed Singapore was nearly impregnable from the sea, but the Japanese attacked overland through the Malay Peninsula—a weakness the British had not fully fortified. On February 8, 1942, the Japanese crossed the Johore Strait and began their assault on Singapore itself. The city, crowded with civilians and under relentless air attack, was in chaos. British commander Lieutenant-General Arthur Percival, faced with dwindling water supplies and no hope of reinforcements, made the controversial decision to surrender.
On February 15, Singapore fell. Over 80,000 British, Indian, and Australian troops became prisoners of war—Britain’s largest surrender in history. The fall of Singapore shocked the world and shattered the myth of European invincibility in Asia. Winston Churchill would later call it “the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history.”
The Battle of The Coral Sea
Japanese light carrier Shoho, after being hit by a torpedo
USS Lexington, Exploding at Coral Sea
Japan had been advancing rapidly since Pearl Harbor. After seizing much of Southeast Asia, its next target was Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea. From there, Japan could threaten Australia, cut Allied supply lines, and tighten its grip over the Pacific. The plan, known as Operation MO, called for a powerful Japanese invasion force, covered by carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku, to head south under the command of Admiral Takeo Takagi.
But the Allies had broken key parts of the Japanese naval code. U.S. Navy intercepted enough signals to guess Japan’s next move. Admiral Chester Nimitz responded swiftly, dispatching Task Force 17—built around the carriers USS Yorktown and USS Lexington—under Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher.
On May 4, U.S. aircraft struck Japanese positions at Tulagi, a small island base north of Guadalcanal. By May 7, both fleets were probing blindly with scouts, each knowing the other was close but unsure of exact positions. That morning, Japanese aircraft sank the American oiler Neosho and destroyer Sims, mistaking them for carriers. In return, American dive bombers found and sank the light carrier Shoho. “Scratch one flat-top,” radioed Lieutenant Commander Robert E. Dixon—a phrase that would become famous.
May 8 saw the main carriers clash in the heart of the Coral Sea. The air battle was fierce and frantic. Japanese planes crippled the Lexington, setting off internal explosions that eventually forced her crew to abandon ship. She would become the first U.S. aircraft carrier lost in World War II. Meanwhile, American planes seriously damaged the Shōkaku, forcing her to withdraw. Zuikaku escaped intact but lost many of her aircrews.
The USA won a strategic victory here, as Japan’s invasion of Port Moresby was called off. It was the first time a Japanese advance had been stopped in the Pacific. However, the loss of the USS Lexington was also a blow that the US Navy couldn't afford, leaving the US with just three aircraft carriers left in the Pacific, and one of which was the heavily damaged Yorktown, making the victory a phyrric one.
The Pacific War had been ongoing for six months, and the U.S. had been suffering defeat after defeat. It badly needed a decisive victory, both to restore morale and to turn the tide of the war. Luckily, that victory was coming.